https://emergentdisease.org/ en mail@emergentdisease.org Copyright 2025 2025-07-03T22:04:00+00:00 https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/animal-science/articles/10.3389/fanim.2024.1335982/full Reptile expos are typically itinerant events at which live wild-caught and/or captive-bred turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, lizards, and snakes are displayed, sold, or exchanged for pet keeping purposes. We conducted a literature review and analysis of reports regarding animal welfare and public health issues of concern associated with the display and sale of reptiles at expos in Europe and North America. Clifford Warwick, Catrina Steedman, Mike Jessop, Rachel Grant Frontiers in Animal Science.5:1335982, 2024 doi: 10.3389/fanim.2024.1335982. 2025-07-03T22:04:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/1-s2.0-S1617138123001930-main_.pdf The live trade in wild animals can increase the risk of escape of exotic animals, introduce invasive species, spread zoonotic diseases, over-exploit wild populations, and harm animal welfare. Trade in exotic pets is a particularly understudied issue in Canada. We propose a conceptual framework for how exotic pet influencers directly and indirectly contribute to increased demand for exotic pets through opinion leadership, sharing information on where to buy exotic pets, and normalising exotic pet ownership. We suggest that it is important to raise public awareness among social media users about the challenges associated with wildlife trade, including animal welfare considerations, and the links between exotic pet trade and conservation. Michelle Anagnostou, Brent Doberstein Journal for Nature Conservation.77, 126522, 2024. 2024-01-10T14:16:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Warwick_et_al_fur_farming_copy.pdf Fur farming involves the captive-breeding, rearing, and killing of between 85 – 100 million animals annually for their pelts. The purpose of this report is to summarise key areas of significance and concern regarding fur farming, and discuss these matters and their one-health considerations. Clifford Warwick , Anthony Pilny , Catrina Steedman, Rachel Grant Frontiers in Animal Science.4,1249901, 2023. 2024-01-10T13:34:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Warwick_et_al_2023_Ele_Published.pdf Infection and injury risks between humans and captive elephants cannot be safely controlled where close contact experiences are involved, arguably creating an unredeemable and indefensible public health and safety situation. Elephant welfare within some sectors of the close contact interactive tourism industry continues to involve significant mistreatment and abuse. To alleviate key One Health concerns outlined in this study, we recommend several types of regulation, monitoring, and control regarding interactions at the human-captive elephant interface. Clifford Warwick, Anthony Pilny, Catrina Steedman, Rachel Grant International Journal of One Health.9(2), 49-66, 2023. 2024-01-10T10:51:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/qmj.2023.27.pdf Pets and exotic animals are increasingly popular all over the world. Some of these animals may cause injuries to their owners or other people during interactions. Both injuries and systemic infections always present diagnosis and treatment challenges. The key recommendations are for parents or childminders to always supervise children when interacting with animals, be particularly cautious, and wear some form of protection when handling pets and domestic, exotic animals. Suha Turkmen et al Qatar Medical Journal.4, 2023. 2023-12-10T14:33:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/s13071-023-06000-y.pdf Pathogen outbreaks mostly originate from animals, but some species are more likely to trigger epi- demics. The giant land snail (Lissachatina fulica) is a widespread invader, a popular exotic pet, and a notorious vector of the rat lungworm, causing eosinophilic meningitis in humans. However, a comprehensive assessment of the risks of disease outbreak associated with this species is lacking. Jérôme M W Gippet, Olivia K Bates, Jérémie Moulin, Cleo Bertelsmeier Parasites & Vectors.16 (363), 2023. 2023-10-10T14:58:00+00:00 https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/4/732 Definitions and usage of the terms short-term, temporary, and transitional are pivotal to animal husbandry and welfare. English Government guidance regarding acceptable short-term, temporary, or transitional accommodation for animals varies widely from Clifford Warwick, Catrina Steedman, Mike Jessop, Rachel Grant Animals.13(4), 732, 2023. 2023-02-19T14:10:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Warwick_et_al_23_mz_copy.pdf Mobile zoos are events in which non-domesticated (exotic) and domesticated species are transported to different venues for the purposes of education, entertainment, or social and therapeutic assistance. We conducted literature searches and surveyed related government agencies regarding existing provisions within laws and policies, number of mobile zoos, and formal guidance issued concerning operation of such events in 74 countries or regions. We also examined guidance standards for mobile zoos, assessed promotional or educational materials for scientific accuracy, recorded the diversity of species in use, and evaluated those species for their suitability for keeping. Poor animal welfare, public health and safety, and education raise serious concerns. Using the precautionary principle, we advise that exotic species should not be used for mobile zoos. Clifford Warwick, Anthony Pilny, Catrina Steedman, Tiffani Howell, Albert Martínez-Silvestre, Vanessa Cadenas, Rachel Grant Animals.13(2), 217, 2023. 2023-02-19T13:58:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Conservat_Sci_and_Prac_-_2023_-_Sigaud_-_Exotic_animal_caf_s_in_Japan_A_new_fashion_with_potential_implications_for.pdf Wildlife trade is a multibillion-dollar industry and concerns not only the exploi- tation of animals for their body parts but is also largely fueled by the demand for exotic pets. We document, in Japan, a recent phenomenon closely related to the pet trade and rapidly spreading in Asia: the display of exotic animals in a café/bar context. We argue that these cafés promoted through social media: (1) might have consequences for biodiversity as they encourage the purchase of exotic animals and represent a pool of potentially invasive species with their pathogens; (2) present a risk of pathogen transmission due to frequent close interactions with consumers; and (3) raise serious concerns about animal welfare. Marie Sigaud, Tomomi Kitade, Cécile Sarabian Conservation Science and Practice.5(2), e12867, 2023. 2023-01-10T15:04:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/vbz.2022.0022.pdf As people and a wide variety of animal species have increasingly close contact in diverse settings, guidance on preventing zoonotic diseases, caused by pathogens that spread between animals and people, is urgently needed. According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), three major groups of animals have repeatedly been associated with local, regional, and national outbreaks of zoonotic diseases in people in the United States: rodents, backyard poultry, and reptiles. This Compendium presents information on these and other non-traditional pet animal species associated with a high risk of zoonotic disease transmission in any setting. Kate Varela et al Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases.22(6), 2022. 2022-08-19T14:19:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/animals-10-02371-v2.pdf Most legislation concerning exotic pet trading and keeping involves restricting or banning problematic species, a practice known as “negative listing”. However, an alternative approach adopted by some governments permits only those species that meet certain scientifically proven criteria to be sold and kept as pets. Thus, governments may “positively list” only those species that are suitable to keep in domestic settings and that do not present a disproportionate risk to people or the environment. We compare functions of negative and positive lists and offer recommendations to governments concerning the development and implementation of positive lists. Elaine Toland, Monica Bando, Michèle Hamers, Vanessa Cadenas, Rob Laidlaw, Albert Martínez-Silvestre, Paul van der Wielen Animals.10(12), 2371, 2020. 2021-09-04T17:41:00+00:00 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S155878782100037X?dgcid=rss_sd_all Exotic pet trading and keeping raises many concerns regarding animal welfare, species conservation, ecological alteration, invasive species, public health and safety, and other issues. Despite these concerns, the UK Government assigns greater consultation importance to exotic pet trading and keeping stakeholders than to parties that seek to remedy relevant problems, or to independent experts. To help ameliorate the current situation, we propose a model government advisory protocol in which consultation weight is assigned first to independent scientific parties; secondly to animal welfare parties; and thirdly to exotic pet trading and keeping parties. Clifford Warwick, Catrina Steedman Journal of Veterinary Behavior.43, 66-76, 2021. 2021-09-04T17:35:00+00:00 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1558787821000095 Regulation of both domesticated and wild pets characteristically involves negative list systems, under which all trading and keeping problems continue to burgeon. Compelling rationales, as well as an important scientific evidence-base, strongly indicate replacement of historically common negative list approaches with objective positive list systems to better regulate the sale and keeping of both wild pet and domesticated pet animals. This report aims to produce a novel method for developing positive lists that meets several criteria that we considered to be fundamental to a robust decision-making protocol: operational objectivity; quantitative algorithm design; no or negligible consensus-based decision-making; binary results; independent repeatability; user-friendliness; resource efficiency; optional use alongside other methods. Clifford Warwick, Catrina Steedman Journal of Veterinary Behavior.42, 53-62, 2021. 2021-09-04T17:28:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/12-Warwick-817-830.pdf Current risk-impact assessment approaches for zoonoses are largely cumbersome and, to be meaningful, may require extensive detailed information. A literature search and review were conducted for current risk-assessment protocols for common zoonoses, with subsequent development of two novel rapid scoring methods for evaluating potential risk associated with pet-linked zoonoses. Accordingly, a novel, two-tier methodological concept – ‘zoonoplasticity’ – was prepared using an intuitive risk approach. The first tier considers risk principles for pets and husbandry practices, and pre-weights animals by class or species. The second tier considers established pathogen- or disease-based questions and assigns a degree of risk. Thus, the zoonoplasticity concept enables pathogens or their resultant zoonoses to be scored and provides a clear points-based protocol offering guidance concerning potential threat, in particular where more quantifiable risk assessment is unavailable because of information deficits. Clifford Warwick Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz..39(3), 2021. 2021-09-04T17:23:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Warwick__Steedman_2021_IJOH_Wildlife_pet.pdf Wildlife markets are centers of trade involving live animals and their derivatives from wild-caught and captive-bred non-domesticated animals, including for the culinary, fashion, traditional medicine, curio, and pet sectors. These markets occur in Southeast Asia, India, North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa, and elsewhere. This study aims to address a diversity of related issues that have a one-health bearing while focusing on wildlife markets in relation to the pet trade. Several aspects of wildlife markets have attracted scientific and popular scrutiny, including animal welfare concerns, species conservation threats, legality, ecological alteration, introduction of invasive alien species, presence of undescribed species, and public and agricultural animal health issues. Clifford Warwick, Catrina Steedman International Journal of One Health.7(1): 42-64, 2021. 2021-09-04T17:03:00+00:00 https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/48599/ This study evaluates the presence of any potentially pathogenic bacterial taxa in ball pythons and the live mice used as their food at a commercial python farm that could impact negatively on the health of these snakes and/or those keeping them. Neil D'Cruze et al. Nature Conservation.May 2020 39:73-86 DOI: 10.3897/natureconservation.39.48599. 2020-10-25T10:05:00+00:00 https://veterinary-practice.com/article/any-single-wild-animal-at-any-single-wildlife-market-in-any-single-country-could-spawn-the-next-pandemic “Western-style” wildlife markets may seem less ramshackle than Asian counterparts, but look beyond the plush advertising website or the clear plastic frontage of a Perspex box. The cramped, deprived, stressful conditions of captivity, along with national and international transportation in planes, vans and car boots are still there for exotic animals to endure. From a public health perspective, any single wild animal, at any single wildlife market, in any single country, could spawn the next pandemic. Until we have eliminated all wildlife markets, in all their forms, and in our own Western backyards, then not only are we unable to claim the moral high-ground, but we may be the next centre of epidemiological attention. Clifford Warwick Veterinary Practice.3rd September 2020. 2020-10-25T10:00:00+00:00 https://theecologist.org/2020/jul/10/wildlife-markets-west Having rightly lectured China in a chorus of disapproval regarding its historical failure to control wildlife markets, Western nations can no longer turn a blind eye to the animal welfare abuses and pandemic risks loitering in our own backyards. Clifford Warwick The Ecologist.10th July 2020. 2020-10-25T09:54:00+00:00 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471492220301288 This review discusses the zoonotic risks associated with human–reptile interactions. Jairo A. Mendoza-Roldan, David Modry, Domenico Otranto Trends in Parasitology.Volume 36, Issue 8, August 2020, Pages 677-687. 2020-10-25T09:11:00+00:00 https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/9/1632 Over 48 million individual animals were imported into the UK from 90 countries across nine global regions from 2014–2018. In terms of volume (semi-domesticated pigeons and game birds aside), amphibians were the most commonly imported group (73%), followed by reptiles (17%), mammals (4%), and birds (3%). The paper reviews the potential for infectious diseases emerging from these vast and varied wildlife imports and discuss the potential threats they pose to public health. Jennah Green, Emma Coulthard, John Norrey, David Megson, Neil D’Cruze Animals.2020, 10, 1632; doi:10.3390/ani10091632. 2020-10-25T09:01:00+00:00 https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/3/413 This study reviews the housing provided for ball pythons by breeders and sellers advertising their snakes at exotic pet expositions and on YouTube and found that most of the housing conditions observed did not meet minimum welfare recommendations. The paper also found that breeders and sellers did not provide adequate information for new pet owners detailing how to look after their snakes appropriately. Neil D’Cruze, Suzi Paterson, Jennah Green, David Megson, Clifford Warwick, Emma Coulthard, John Norrey, Mark Auliya, Gemma Carder Animals.2020, 10, 413; doi:10.3390/ani10030413. 2020-10-25T08:36:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/EHN_Nov_2018.pdf A comprehensive new regime for local authorities covering their animal-related duties came into effect last month. Clifford Warwick explains the background. Clifford Warwick Environmental Health News.Nov 2018. 2018-11-10T22:48:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Vet_Practice_Pet_Labelling_copy.pdf An introductory article for the veterinary profession on universal husbandry and inspection as well as a proposal for a pet labelling scheme Clifford Warwick Veterinary Practice.Sept 2018. 2018-11-10T22:32:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/Guidelines_for_Inspection_of_Companion_and_Commercial_Animal_Establishments.pdf Historically, the management and inspection of animals in commerce and in private keeping have involved a considerable degree of arbitrary evaluation based on the personal experience of the vendor, keeper, advisor, or inspector. Accordingly, relevant protocols and standards are subject to considerable variation. Relatedly, diversity of traded and privately kept species generates significant challenges for those responsible for facility management and inspection alike. Animal welfare and public health and safety are constant and major concerns that require _objective_ methodologies to monitor and control. This report focuses on establishments concerned with the boarding, breeding, storage, vending or handover of animals intended for human companions or pets, and aims to provide universal objective information for essential husbandry, inspection protocols and an allied inspection assessment tool for scoring establishments. Clifford Warwick, Mike Jessop, Phillip Arena, Anthony Pilny, Catrina Steedman Frontiers in Veterinary Science.July 2018. Front. Vet. Sci. 5:151. 2018-11-10T22:18:00+00:00 https://emergentdisease.org/assets/documents/JVEB_Pet_labelling_2018.pdf The trade in and keeping of exotic pets has been frequently criticized for the commonly inhumane and harmful practices that are associated with supply and keeping, including animal welfare, species conservation, invasiveness, and public health and safety. Mis-selling exotic species as “easy to keep” or “beginner” animals is widely regarded to be a major common and problematic factor. The authors propose that a system is required that facilitates decision-making at the interface between sale and purchase sectors and that uses clear evidence-based labelling. Clifford Warwick, Catrina Steedman, Mike Jessop, Phillip Arena, Anthony Pilny, Emma Nicholas Journal of Veterinary Behavior.April 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.03.015. 2018-11-09T22:18:00+00:00